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Virchow Contribution To Cell Theory

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High german doctor and polymath (1821–1902)

Rudolf Virchow
Rudolf Virchow NLM3.jpg
Born (1821-ten-13)13 October 1821

Schivelbein, Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia, High german Confederation
Died 5 September 1902(1902-09-05) (anile 80)

Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire
Resting place Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof, Schöneberg
52°17′North 13°13′E  /  52.28°N 13.22°E  / 52.28; xiii.22
Citizenship Kingdom of Prussia
Education Friedrich Wilhelm University (M.D., 1843)
Known for Jail cell theory
Cellular pathology
Biogenesis
Virchow's triad
Spouse Ferdinande Rosalie Mayer (a.k.a. Rose Virchow)
Awards Copley Medal (1892)
Scientific career
Fields Medicine
Anthropology
Institutions Charité
Academy of Würzburg
Thesis De rheumate praesertim corneae(1843)
Doctoral advisor Johannes Peter Müller
Other academic advisors Robert Froriep
Doctoral students Friedrich Daniel von Recklinghausen
Walther Kruse
Other notable students Ernst Haeckel
Edwin Klebs
Franz Boas
Adolph Kussmaul
Max Westenhöfer
William Osler
William H. Welch
Influenced Eduard Hitzig
Charles Scott Sherrington
Paul Farmer
Signature
Rudolf Virchow signature.svg

Rudolf Ludwig Carl Virchow (;[1] German: [ˈfɪʁço] or [ˈvɪʁço];[two] xiii October 1821 – 5 September 1902) was a High german doctor, anthropologist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist, writer, editor, and politician. He is known every bit "the begetter of modernistic pathology" and as the founder of social medicine, and to his colleagues, the "Pope of medicine".[iii] [4] [5]

Virchow studied medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University under Johannes Peter Müller. While working at the Charité hospital, his investigation of the 1847–1848 typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia laid the foundation for public wellness in Germany, and paved his political and social careers. From it, he coined a well known adage: "Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing else simply medicine on a large scale". His participation in the Revolution of 1848 led to his expulsion from Charité the next year. He then published a newspaper Die Medizinische Reform (The Medical Reform). He took the first Chair of Pathological Anatomy at the University of Würzburg in 1849. Afterwards 5 years, Charité reinstated him to its new Institute for Pathology. He co-founded the political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, and was elected to the Prussian House of Representatives and won a seat in the Reichstag. His opposition to Otto von Bismarck's financial policy resulted in duel challenge past the latter. However, Virchow supported Bismarck in his anti-Cosmic campaigns, which he named Kulturkampf ("culture struggle").[6]

A prolific author, he produced more than 2000 scientific writings.[vii] Cellular Pathology (1858), regarded every bit the root of modern pathology, introduced the third dictum in cell theory: Omnis cellula east cellula ("All cells come from cells").[8] He was a co-founder of Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft in 1849 and Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pathologie in 1897. He founded journals such equally Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (with Benno Reinhardt in 1847, later on renamed Virchows Archiv), and Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Periodical of Ethnology).[9] The latter is published past German Anthropological Association and the Berlin Gild for Anthropology, Ethnology and Prehistory, the societies which he as well founded.[x]

Virchow was the first to depict and name diseases such as leukemia, chordoma, ochronosis, embolism, and thrombosis. He coined biological terms such equally "neuroglia", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida"; terms such as Virchow's node, Virchow–Robin spaces, Virchow–Seckel syndrome, and Virchow's triad are named after him. His clarification of the life bicycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis influenced the practice of meat inspection. He developed the first systematic method of autopsy,[11] and introduced pilus analysis in forensic investigation.[12] Opposing the germ theory of diseases, he rejected Ignaz Semmelweis's thought of disinfecting. He was critical of what he described equally "Nordic mysticism" regarding the Aryan race.[13] Every bit an anti-Darwinist, he called Charles Darwin an "ignoramus" and his own student Ernst Haeckel a "fool". He described the original specimen of Neanderthal human equally zippo but that of a plain-featured human.[14]

Early life [edit]

Virchow was born in Schievelbein, in eastern Pomerania, Prussia (at present Świdwin, Poland).[xv] He was the but child of Carl Christian Siegfried Virchow (1785–1865) and Johanna Maria née Hesse (1785–1857). His male parent was a farmer and the city treasurer. Academically brilliant, he always topped his classes and was fluent in German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, English language, Arabic, French, Italian and Dutch. He progressed to the gymnasium in Köslin (at present Koszalin in Poland) in 1835 with the goal of becoming a pastor. He graduated in 1839 with a thesis titled A Life Full of Work and Toil is non a Burden but a Benediction. Yet, he chose medicine mainly because he considered his voice also weak for preaching.[16]

Scientific career [edit]

Memorial stone of Rudolf Virchow in his hometown Świdwin, now in Poland

In 1839, he received a military fellowship, a scholarship for gifted children from poor families to go army surgeons, to study medicine at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin (at present Humboldt Academy of Berlin).[17] He was nearly influenced by Johannes Peter Müller, his doctoral advisor. Virchow defended his doctoral thesis titled De rheumate praesertim corneae (corneal manifestations of rheumatic illness) on 21 October 1843.[18] Immediately on graduation, he became subordinate md to Müller.[19] Merely presently after, he joined the Charité Hospital in Berlin for internship. In 1844, he was appointed as medical banana to the prosector (pathologist) Robert Froriep, from whom he learned microscopy which interested him in pathology. Froriep was also the editor of an abstruse periodical that specialised in foreign work, which inspired Virchow for scientific ideas of France and England.[20]

Virchow published his beginning scientific paper in 1845, giving the earliest known pathological descriptions of leukemia. He passed the medical licensure examination in 1846 and immediately succeeded Froriep as infirmary prosector at the Charité. In 1847, he was appointed to his kickoff academic position with the rank of privatdozent. Because his articles did not receive favourable attention from German editors, he founded Archiv für Pathologische Anatomie und Physiologie und für Klinische Medicin (now known as Virchows Archiv) with a colleague Benno Reinhardt in 1847. He edited alone afterwards Reinhardt'south decease in 1852 till his own.[17] This journal published critical articles based on the criterion that no papers would exist published that contained outdated, untested, dogmatic or speculative ideas.[16]

Unlike his German peers, Virchow had dandy religion in clinical ascertainment, fauna experimentation (to determine causes of diseases and the effects of drugs) and pathological beefcake, particularly at the microscopic level, as the basic principles of investigation in medical sciences. He went further and stated that the prison cell was the basic unit of measurement of the body that had to be studied to empathise illness. Although the term 'cell' had been coined in 1665 during the English language scientist Robert Hooke'southward early on application of the microscope to biology, the building blocks of life were yet considered to be the 21 tissues of Bichat, a concept described past the French dr. Xavier Bichat.[21] [20]

The Prussian authorities employed Virchow to report the typhus epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1847–1848. Information technology was from this medical campaign that he developed his ideas on social medicine and politics afterwards seeing the victims and their poverty. Even though he was non peculiarly successful in combating the epidemic, his 190-paged Study on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia in 1848 became a turning point in politics and public health in Germany.[22] [23] He returned to Berlin on 10 March 1848, and only viii days later, a revolution broke out confronting the government in which he played an agile part. To fight political injustice he helped found Die Medizinische Reform (Medical Reform), a weekly newspaper for promoting social medicine, in July of that year. The newspaper ran under the banners "medicine is a social science" and "the medico is the natural attorney of the poor". Political pressures forced him to terminate the publication in June 1849, and he was expelled from his official position.[24]

In Nov 1848, he was given an academic appointment and left Berlin for the University of Würzburg to hold Frg's kickoff chair of pathological beefcake. During his half dozen-yr menses there, he concentrated on his scientific work, including detailed studies of venous thrombosis and cellular theory. His first major work there was a six-volume Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie (Handbook on Special Pathology and Therapeutics) published in 1854. In 1856, he returned to Berlin to become the newly created Chair for Pathological Anatomy and Physiology at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University, as well as Manager of the newly built Institute for Pathology on the bounds of the Charité. He held the latter postal service for the next twenty years.[twenty] [25] [26]

Cell biology [edit]

Virchow is credited with several key discoveries. His most widely known scientific contribution is his cell theory, which built on the work of Theodor Schwann. He was ane of the first to accept the work of Robert Remak, who showed that the origin of cells was the division of pre-existing cells.[27] He did not initially take the evidence for cell division and believed that it occurs only in sure types of cells. When it dawned on him in 1855 that Remak might be right, he published Remak'due south work as his own, causing a falling-out between the ii.[28]

Virchow was specially influenced in cellular theory by the work of John Goodsir of Edinburgh, whom he described as "one of the earliest and almost acute observers of cell-life both physiological and pathological". Virchow dedicated his magnum opus Die Cellularpathologie to Goodsir.[29] Virchow's cellular theory was encapsulated in the epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("all cells (come) from cells"), which he published in 1855.[8] [20] [30] (The epigram was really coined past François-Vincent Raspail, but popularized past Virchow.)[31] It is a rejection of the concept of spontaneous generation, which held that organisms could arise from nonliving matter. For example, maggots were believed to appear spontaneously in decomposable meat; Francesco Redi carried out experiments that disproved this notion and coined the maxim Omne vivum ex ovo ("Every living thing comes from a living thing" — literally "from an egg"); Virchow (and his predecessors) extended this to land that the only source for a living cell was another living cell.[32]

Cancer [edit]

In 1845, Virchow and John Hughes Bennett independently observed abnormal increases in white claret cells in some patients. Virchow correctly identified the status equally a claret disease, and named it leukämie in 1847 (later anglicised to leukemia).[33] [34] [35] In 1857, he was the start to describe a blazon of tumour called chordoma that originated from the clivus (at the base of the skull).[36] [37]

Theory of cancer origin [edit]

Virchow was the outset to correctly link the origin of cancers from otherwise normal cells.[38] (His instructor Müller had proposed that cancers originated from cells, but from special cells, which he called blastema.) In 1855, he suggested that cancers arise from the activation of dormant cells (perhaps similar to cells now known as stem cells) present in mature tissue.[39] Virchow believed that cancer is caused by severe irritation in the tissues, and his theory came to be known as chronic irritation theory. He thought, rather wrongly, that the irritation spread in the form of liquid so that cancer apace increases.[40] His theory was largely ignored, as he was proved incorrect that it was not by liquid, but by metastasis of the already malignant cells that cancers spread. (Metastasis was beginning described by Karl Thiersch in the 1860s.)[41]

He made a crucial observation that certain cancers (carcinoma in the modern sense) were inherently associated with white claret cells (which are at present called macrophages) that produced irritation (inflammation). Information technology was only towards the terminate of the 20th century that Virchow's theory was taken seriously.[42] It was realised that specific cancers (including those of mesothelioma, lung, prostate, bladder, pancreatic, cervical, esophageal, melanoma, and head and neck) are indeed strongly associated with long-term inflammation.[43] [44] In addition it became articulate that prolonged use of anti-inflammatory drugs, such as aspirin, reduced cancer risk.[45] Experiments also show that drugs that block inflammation simultaneously inhibit tumour formation and evolution.[46]

The Kaiser'south case [edit]

Virchow was 1 of the leading physicians to Kaiser Frederick Three, who suffered from cancer of the larynx. While other physicians such as Ernst von Bergmann suggested surgical removal of the unabridged larynx, Virchow was opposed to information technology because no successful functioning of this kind had e'er been washed. The British surgeon Morell Mackenzie performed a biopsy of the Kaiser in 1887 and sent information technology to Virchow, who identified it as "pachydermia verrucosa laryngis". Virchow affirmed that the tissues were not cancerous, even afterward several biopsy tests.[47] [48]

The Kaiser died on 15 June 1888. The next 24-hour interval a mail-mortem exam was performed by Virchow and his assistant. They establish that the larynx was extensively damaged by ulceration, and microscopic examination confirmed epidermal carcinoma. Die Krankheit Kaiser Friedrich des Dritten (The Medical Report of Kaiser Frederick 3) was published on eleven July under the atomic number 82 authorship of Bergmann. But Virchow and Mackenzie were omitted, and they were particularly criticised for all their works.[49] The arguments between them turned into a century-long controversy, resulting in Virchow being accused of misdiagnosis and malpractice. But reassessment of the diagnostic history revealed that Virchow was correct in his findings and decisions. It is now believed that the Kaiser had hybrid verrucous carcinoma, a very rare grade of verrucous carcinoma, and that Virchow had no fashion of correctly identifying it.[47] [48] [l] (The cancer blazon was correctly identified simply in 1948 past Lauren Ackerman.)[51] [52]

Anatomy [edit]

It was discovered approximately simultaneously past Virchow and Charles Emile Troisier that an enlarged left supraclavicular node is one of the earliest signs of gastrointestinal malignancy, commonly of the stomach, or less commonly, lung cancer. This sign has become known as Virchow's node and simultaneously Troisier's sign.[53] [54]

Thromboembolism [edit]

Virchow is too known for elucidating the mechanism of pulmonary thromboembolism (a status of blood clotting in the claret vessels), coining the terms embolism and thrombosis.[55] He noted that claret clots in the pulmonary artery originate start from venous thrombi, stating in 1859:

[T]he detachment of larger or smaller fragments from the end of the softening thrombus which are carried along past the electric current of blood and driven into remote vessels. This gives rise to the very frequent process on which I accept bestowed the proper name of Embolia."[56]

Having made these initial discoveries based on autopsies, he proceeded to put forward a scientific hypothesis; that pulmonary thrombi are transported from the veins of the leg and that the blood has the ability to behave such an object. He then proceeded to prove this hypothesis by well-designed experiments, repeated numerous times to consolidate prove, and with meticulously detailed methodology. This piece of work rebutted a claim made past the eminent French pathologist Jean Cruveilhier that phlebitis led to clot development and that thus coagulation was the main consequence of venous inflammation. This was a view held by many before Virchow's work. Related to this enquiry, Virchow described the factors contributing to venous thrombosis, Virchow'due south triad.[20] [57]

Pathology [edit]

Virchow founded the medical fields of cellular pathology and comparative pathology (comparing of diseases common to humans and animals). His most important work in the field was Cellular Pathology (Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre) published in 1858, every bit a collection of his lectures.[25] This is regarded as the footing of mod medical science,[58] and the "greatest advance which scientific medicine had made since its offset."[59]

His very innovative work may be viewed as between that of Giovanni Battista Morgagni, whose work Virchow studied, and that of Paul Ehrlich, who studied at the Charité while Virchow was developing microscopic pathology at that place. One of Virchow's major contributions to German medical instruction was to encourage the employ of microscopes by medical students, and he was known for constantly urging his students to "think microscopically". He was the commencement to establish a link betwixt infectious diseases between humans and animals, for which he coined the term "zoonoses".[threescore] He as well introduced scientific terms such as "chromatin", "agenesis", "parenchyma", "osteoid", "amyloid degeneration", and "spina bifida".[61] His concepts on pathology straight opposed humourism, an ancient medical dogma that diseases were due to imbalanced body fluids, hypothetically chosen humours, that still pervaded.[62]

Virchow was a cracking influence on Swedish pathologist Axel Key, who worked equally his assistant during Key'due south doctoral studies in Berlin.[63]

Parasitology [edit]

Virchow worked out the life cycle of a roundworm Trichinella spiralis. Virchow noticed a mass of round white flecks in the muscle of domestic dog and human cadavers, similar to those described by Richard Owen in 1835. He confirmed by microscopic observation that the white particles were indeed the larvae of roundworms, curled upward in the muscle tissue. Rudolph Leukart found that these tiny worms could develop into adult roundworms in the intestine of a dog. He correctly asserted that these worms could also crusade human helminthiasis. Virchow farther demonstrated that if the infected meat is first heated to 137 °F for 10 minutes, the worms could not infect dogs or humans.[64] He established that human roundworm infection occurs via contaminated pork. This directly led to the establishment of meat inspection, which was first adopted in Berlin.[65] [66]

Autopsy [edit]

Virchow was the first to develop a systematic method of dissection, based on his knowledge of cellular pathology. The modern dissection still constitutes his techniques.[67] His first significant dissection was on a l-yr-old woman in 1845. He constitute an unusual number of white claret cells, and gave a detailed description in 1847 and named the condition every bit leukämie.[68] Ane on his autopsies in 1857 was the first clarification of vertebral disc rupture.[18] [69] His autopsy on a baby in 1856 was the outset description of congenital pulmonary lymphangiectasia (the proper name given by K. M. Laurence a century after), a rare and fatal disease of the lung.[70] From his feel of postal service-mortem examinations of cadavers, he published his method in a minor book in 1876.[71] His book was the first to describe the techniques of autopsy specifically to examine abnormalities in organs, and retain important tissues for further examination and sit-in. Different any other earlier practitioner, he adept complete surgery of all body parts with body organs dissected one by one. This has get the standard method.[72] [73]

Ochronosis [edit]

Virchow discovered the clinical syndrome which he called ochronosis, a metabolic disorder in which a patient accumulates homogentisic acid in connective tissues and which can be identified by discolouration seen under the microscope. He establish the unusual symptom in an autopsy of the corpse of a 67-twelvemonth-former human being on 8 May 1884. This was the showtime time this aberrant disease affecting cartilage and connective tissue was observed and characterised. His description and coining of the name appeared in the October 1866 upshot of Virchows Archiv.[74] [75] [76]

Forensic work [edit]

Virchow was the first to analyse hair in criminal investigation, and fabricated the first forensic written report on it in 1861.[77] He was called every bit an expert witness in a murder case, and he used hair samples collected from the victim. He became the start to recognise the limitation of hair as testify. He found that hairs tin can be unlike in an individual, that individual hair has characteristic features, and that hairs from unlike individuals can be strikingly similar. He concluded that bear witness based on hair analysis is inconclusive.[78] His testimony runs:

[T]he hairs found on the defendant do non possess any so pronounced peculiarities or individualities [so] that no one with certainty has the right to assert that they must have originated from the head of the victim.[12]

Anthropology and prehistory biology [edit]

Virchow adult an interest in anthropology in 1865, when he discovered pile dwellings in northern Germany. In 1869, he co-founded the German Anthropological Association. In 1870 he founded the Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory (Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte) which was very influential in coordinating and intensifying High german archaeological research. Until his death, Virchow was several times (at least fifteen times) its president, often taking turns with his former educatee Adolf Bastian.[7] As president, Virchow frequently contributed to and co-edited the club's primary journal Zeitschrift für Ethnologie (Journal of Ethnology), which Adolf Bastian, together with another educatee of Virchow, Robert Hartman, had founded in 1869.[79] [80]

In 1870, he led a major earthworks of the hill forts in Pomerania. He also excavated wall mounds in Wöllstein in 1875 with Robert Koch, whose newspaper he edited on the subject.[16] For his contributions in German archæology, the Rudolf Virchow lecture is held annually in his honor. He made field trips to Asia Small-scale, the Caucasus, Egypt, Nubia, and other places, sometimes in the visitor of Heinrich Schliemann. His 1879 journey to the site of Troy is described in Beiträge zur Landeskunde in Troas ("Contributions to the knowledge of the mural in Troy", 1879) and Alttrojanische Gräber und Schädel ("Onetime Trojan graves and skulls", 1882).[21] [81]

Anti-Darwinism [edit]

Virchow was an opponent of Darwin'south theory of development,[82] [83] and particularly skeptical of the emergent thesis of homo evolution.[84] [85] He did not reject evolutionary theory as a whole, and viewed the theory of natural selection as "an immeasurable advance" just that still has no "actual proof."[86] On 22 September 1877, he delivered a public address entitled "The Freedom of Scientific discipline in the Modern Country" before the Congress of German Naturalists and Physicians in Munich. In that location he spoke against the didactics of the theory of evolution in schools, arguing that it was as yet an unproven hypothesis that lacked empirical foundations and that, therefore, its education would negatively affect scientific studies.[87] [88] Ernst Haeckel, who had been Virchow's student, later reported that his sometime professor said that "information technology is quite sure that homo did not descend from the apes...not caring in the to the lowest degree that now most all experts of good judgment hold the reverse conviction."[89]

Virchow became one of the leading opponents on the fence over the authenticity of Neanderthal, discovered in 1856, every bit distinct species and ancestral to mod humans. He himself examined the original fossil in 1872, and presented his observations before the Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte.[7] He stated that the Neanderthal had not been a primitive form of human, but an aberrant homo, who, judging past the shape of his skull, had been injured and plain-featured, and because the unusual shape of his bones, had been arthritic, rickety, and feeble.[90] [91] [92] With such an authorisation, the fossil was rejected every bit new species. With this reasoning, Virchow "judged Darwin an ignoramus and Haeckel a fool and was loud and frequent in the publication of these judgments,"[93] and declared that "it is quite certain that man did not descend from the apes."[94] The Neanderthals were later accepted as singled-out species of humans, Human being neanderthalensis.[95] [96]

On 22 September 1877, at the Fiftieth Conference of the High german Association of Naturalists and Medico held in Munich, Haeckel pleaded for introducing evolution in the public schoolhouse curricula, and tried to dissociate Darwinism from social Darwinism.[97] His campaign was because of Herman Müller, a school instructor who was banned because of his teaching a year before on the inanimate origin of life from carbon. This resulted in prolonged public debate with Virchow. A few days afterward Virchow responded that Darwinism was only a hypothesis, and morally unsafe to students. This severe criticism of Darwinism was immediately taken upwardly by the London Times, from which further debates erupted amid English language scholars. Haeckel wrote his arguments in the October issue of Nature titled "The Present Position of Evolution Theory", to which Virchow responded in the next issue with an article "The Freedom of Science in the Modern Country".[98] Virchow stated that pedagogy of evolution was "opposite to the censor of the natural scientists, who reckons only with facts."[86] The contend led Haeckel to write a full volume Freedom in Science and Instruction in 1879. That twelvemonth the upshot was discussed in the Prussian House of Representatives and the verdict was in favour of Virchow. In 1882 the Prussian education policy officially excluded natural history in schools.[99]

Years later, the noted German doctor Carl Ludwig Schleich would recall a conversation he held with Virchow, who was a close friend of his: "...On to the field of study of Darwinism. 'I don't believe in all this,' Virchow told me. 'if I prevarication on my sofa and blow the possibilities away from me, every bit some other man may accident the smoke of his cigar, I tin, of course, understand with such dreams. Only they don't stand the test of knowledge. Haeckel is a fool. That will be credible one twenty-four hour period. Every bit far as that goes, if anything like transmutation did occur it could only happen in the course of pathological degeneration!'"[100]

Virchow's ultimate opinion virtually evolution was reported a year earlier he died; in his own words:

The intermediate form is unimaginable save in a dream... Nosotros cannot teach or consent that information technology is an achievement that man descended from the ape or other fauna.

— Homiletic Review, Jan, (1901)[101] [102]

Virchow'due south anti-evolutionism, like that of Albert von Kölliker and Thomas Brown, did not come from religion, since he was not a believer.[14]

Anti-racism [edit]

Virchow believed that Haeckel's monist propagation of social Darwinism was in its nature politically dangerous and anti-democratic, and he as well criticized it considering he saw it as related to the emergent nationalist movement in Germany, ideas about cultural superiority,[103] [104] [105] and militarism.[106] In 1885, he launched a study of craniometry, which gave results contradictory to contemporary scientific racist theories on the "Aryan race", leading him to denounce the "Nordic mysticism" at the 1885 Anthropology Congress in Karlsruhe. Josef Kollmann, a collaborator of Virchow, stated at the aforementioned congress that the people of Europe, exist they German language, Italian, English or French, belonged to a "mixture of diverse races", further declaring that the "results of craniology" led to a "struggle against any theory concerning the superiority of this or that European race" over others.[107] He analysed the hair, skin, and eye colour of vi,758,827 schoolchildren to place the Jews and Aryans. His findings, published in 1886 and last that there could exist neither a Jewish nor a German race, were regarded equally a accident to anti-Semitism and the existence of an "Aryan race".[thirteen] [108]

Anti-germ theory of diseases [edit]

Virchow did not believe in the germ theory of diseases, as advocated past Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch. He proposed that diseases came from aberrant activities inside the cells, not from outside pathogens.[lx] He believed that epidemics were social in origin, and the way to combat epidemics was political, non medical. He regarded germ theory equally a hindrance to prevention and cure. He considered social factors such as poverty major causes of disease.[109] He even attacked Koch's and Ignaz Semmelweis' policy of handwashing equally an antiseptic practice, who said of him: "Explorers of nature recognize no bugbears other than individuals who speculate."[62] He postulated that germs were only using infected organs as habitats, but were not the cause, and stated, "If I could live my life once more, I would devote information technology to proving that germs seek their natural habitat: diseased tissue, rather than existence the cause of diseased tissue".[110]

Politics and social medicine [edit]

More than a laboratory physician, Virchow was an impassioned abet for social and political reform. His credo involved social inequality as the cause of diseases that requires political deportment,[111] stating:

Medicine is a social science, and politics is zilch else merely medicine on a large scale. Medicine, every bit a social science, every bit the science of human beings, has the obligation to bespeak out problems and to endeavor their theoretical solution: the pol, the practical anthropologist, must find the means for their bodily solution... Science for its own sake commonly means nothing more than science for the sake of the people who happen to be pursuing information technology. Knowledge which is unable to back up activeness is not genuine – and how unsure is activity without understanding... If medicine is to fulfill her keen task, then she must enter the political and social life... The physicians are the natural attorneys of the poor, and the social problems should largely be solved by them.[112] [113] [114]

Virchow actively worked for social alter to fight poverty and diseases. His methods involved pathological observations and statistical analyses. He called this new field of social medicine a "social science". His nigh important influences could exist noted in Latin America, where his disciples introduced his social medicine.[115] For example, his student Max Westenhöfer became Director of Pathology at the medical schoolhouse of the University of Chile, becoming the nearly influential advocate. One of Westenhöfer's students, Salvador Allende, through social and political activities based on Virchow's doctrine, became the 29th President of Chile (1970–1973).[116]

Virchow made himself known every bit a pronounced pro-democracy progressive in the year of revolutions in Federal republic of germany (1848). His political views are evident in his Written report on the Typhus Outbreak of Upper Silesia, where he states that the outbreak could not exist solved by treating individual patients with drugs or with minor changes in food, housing, or clothing laws, but but through radical action to promote the advancement of an entire population, which could exist achieved merely by "total and unlimited democracy" and "education, liberty and prosperity".[24]

These radical statements and his minor part in the revolution caused the government to remove him from his position in 1849, although within a year he was reinstated every bit prosector "on probation". Prosector was a secondary position in the hospital. This secondary position in Berlin convinced him to accept the chair of pathological beefcake at the medical school in the provincial town of Würzburg, where he continued his scientific inquiry. Six years afterwards, he had attained fame in scientific and medical circles, and was reinstated at Charité Hospital.[xx]

In 1859, he became a member of the Municipal Council of Berlin and began his career as a civic reformer. Elected to the Prussian Diet in 1862, he became leader of the Radical or Progressive party; and from 1880 to 1893, he was a fellow member of the Reichstag.[21] He worked to improve healthcare conditions for Berlin citizens, especially by working towards modernistic water and sewer systems. Virchow is credited every bit a founder of anthropology[117] and of social medicine, frequently focusing on the fact that disease is never purely biological, but frequently socially derived or spread.[118]

The duel challenge by Bismarck [edit]

Every bit a co-founder and member of the liberal political party Deutsche Fortschrittspartei, he was a leading political antagonist of Bismarck. He was opposed to Bismarck'south excessive war machine upkeep, which angered Bismarck sufficiently that he challenged Virchow to a duel in 1865.[21] Virchow declined because he considered dueling an uncivilized mode to solve a conflict.[119] Diverse English-language sources purport a different version of events, the and then-chosen "Sausage Duel". It has Virchow, being the one challenged and therefore entitled to choose the weapons, selecting two pork sausages, one loaded with Trichinella larvae, the other condom; Bismarck declined.[60] [120] [121] However, there are no German-language documents confirming this version.

Kulturkampf [edit]

Virchow supported Bismarck in an attempt to reduce the political and social influence of the Cosmic Church, betwixt 1871 and 1887.[122] He remarked that the movement was acquiring "the grapheme of a not bad struggle in the involvement of humanity". He chosen it Kulturkampf ("civilization struggle")[6] during the give-and-take of Paul Ludwig Falk's May Laws (Maigesetze).[123] Virchow was respected in Masonic circles,[124] and according to one source[125] may have been a freemason, though no official tape of this has been found.

Personal life [edit]

Rudolf and Rose Virchow in 1851

Virchow with his son Ernst and daughter Adele

On 24 August 1850 in Berlin, Virchow married Ferdinande Rosalie Mayer (29 February 1832 – 21 February 1913), a liberal's daughter. They had iii sons and three daughters:[126]

  • Karl Virchow (1 Baronial 1851 – 21 September 1912), a chemist
  • Hans Virchow (de) (ten September 1852 – 7 April 1940), an anatomist
  • Adele Virchow (1 October 1855 – 18 May 1955), the wife of Rudolf Henning, a professor of German studies
  • Ernst Virchow (24 January 1858 – v April 1942)
  • Marie Virchow (29 June 1866 – 23 October 1951), the wife of Carl Rabl, an Austrian anatomist
  • Hanna Elisabeth Maria Virchow (10 May 1873 – 28 November 1963)

Decease [edit]

The tomb of Rudolf and Rose Virchow at Modify St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof

Virchow broke his thigh bone on 4 January 1902, jumping off a running streetcar while exiting the electrical tramway. Although he predictable total recovery, the fractured femur never healed, and restricted his concrete activity. His health gradually deteriorated and he died of center failure after eight months, on 5 September 1902, in Berlin.[16] [127] A country funeral was held on ix September in the Associates Room of the Magistracy in the Berlin Town Hall, which was decorated with laurels, palms and flowers. He was buried in the Alter St.-Matthäus-Kirchhof in Schöneberg, Berlin.[128] His tomb was shared past his wife on 21 February 1913.[129]

Collections and Foundations [edit]

Rudolf Virchow was also a collector. Several museums in Berlin emerged from Virchow's collections: the Märkisches Museum, the Museum of Prehistory and Early History, the Ethnological Museum and the Museum of Medical History. In improver, Virchow's collection of anatomical specimens from numerous European and not-European populations, which still exists today, deserves special mention. The collection is owned by the Berlin Social club for Anthropology and Prehistory. The drove striking the international headlines in 2020 when the two journalists Markus Grill and David Bruser, in cooperation with the archivist Nils Seethaler, succeeded in identifying 4 skulls of indigenous Canadians that were thought to exist lost and which came into Virchow's possession through the mediation of the Canadian doctor William Osler in the late 19th century. [130] [131]

Honours and legacy [edit]

  • In June 1859, Virchow was elected to Berlin Bedchamber of Representatives.[26]
  • In 1860, he was elected official Member of the Königliche Wissenschaftliche Deputation für das Medizinalwesen (Royal Scientific Lath for Medical Diplomacy).[25]
  • In 1861, he was elected foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
  • In 1862, he was elected as an international Member of the American Philosophical Society.[132]
  • In March 1862, he was elected to the Prussian Business firm of Representatives.[25]
  • In 1873, he was elected to the Prussian Academy of Sciences. He declined to be ennobled every bit "von Virchow," he was nonetheless designated Geheimrat ("privy councillor") in 1894.[xix]
  • In 1880, he was elected member of the Reichstag of the German Empire.
  • In 1881, Rudolf-Virchow-Foundation was established on the occasion of his 60th birthday.[vii]
  • In 1892, he was appointed Rector of the Berlin Academy.
  • In 1892, he was awarded the British Royal Society's Copley Medal.
  • The Rudolf Virchow Center, a biomedical enquiry center in the Academy of Würzburg was established in Jan 2002.[133]
  • Rudolf Virchow Award is given by the Guild for Medical Anthropology for research achievements in medical anthropology.[134]
  • Rudolf Virchow lecture, an annual public lecture, is organised by the Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, for eminent scientists in the field of palaeolithic archæology.
  • Rudolf Virchow Medical Order is based in New York, and offers Rudolf Virchow Medal.[135]

Hospital – Campus Virchow Klinikum, Cardiology Center

  • Campus Virchow Klinikum (CVK) is the proper noun of a campus of Charité hospital in Berlin.
  • The Rudolf Virchow Monument, a muscular limestone statue, was erected in 1910 at Karlplatz in Berlin.[136]
  • Langenbeck-Virchow-Haus was built in 1915 in Berlin, jointly honouring Virchow and Bernhard von Langenbeck. Originally a medical centre, the building is now used as conference heart of the German Surgical Clan (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Chirurgie) and the Berlin Medical Association (BMG-Berliner Medizinische Gesellschaft).[137]
  • The Rudolf Virchow Study Center is instituted by the European University Viadrina for compiling of the complete works of Virchow.[138]
  • Virchow Colina in Antarctica is named after Rudolf Virchow.[139]

Eponymous medical terms [edit]

  • Virchow's angle, the angle between the nasobasilar line and the nasosubnasal line
  • Virchow'due south cell, a macrophage in Hansen'due south affliction
  • Virchow's prison cell theory, omnis cellula due east cellula – every living cell comes from another living cell
  • Virchow'due south concept of pathology, comparison of diseases common to humans and animals
  • Virchow's affliction, leontiasis ossea, now recognized as a symptom rather than a illness
  • Virchow's gland, Virchow's node
  • Virchow's law, during craniosynostosis, skull growth is restricted to a plane perpendicular to the affected, prematurely fused suture and is enhanced in a airplane parallel to information technology.
  • Virchow's line, a line from the root of the nose to the lambda
  • Virchow's metamorphosis, lipomatosis in the heart and salivary glands
  • Virchow's method of autopsy, a method of dissection where each organ is taken out ane by i
  • Virchow'south node, the presence of metastatic cancer in a lymph node in the supraclavicular fossa (root of the neck left of the midline), too known as Troisier's sign
  • Virchow'south psammoma, psammoma bodies in meningiomas
  • Virchow–Robin spaces, enlarged perivascular spaces (EPVS) (oft only potential) that surround claret vessels for a short distance as they enter the brain
  • Virchow–Seckel syndrome, a very rare disease also known every bit "bird-headed dwarfism"
  • Virchow skull billow, a chisel-like device used to separate the calvaria from the residual of the skull to betrayal the encephalon in autopsies
  • Virchow's triad, the archetype factors which precipitate venous thrombus germination: endothelial dysfunction or injury, hemodynamic changes, and hypercoagulability

Works [edit]

Virchow was a prolific author. Some of his works are:[140]

  • Mittheilungen über die in Oberschlesien herrschende Typhus-Epidemie (1848)
  • Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre., his main work (1859; English translation, 1860): The 4th edition of this work formed the offset volume of Vorlesungen über Pathologie beneath.
  • Handbuch der Speciellen Pathologie und Therapie, prepared in collaboration with others (1854–76)
  • Vorlesungen über Pathologie (1862–72)
  • Die krankhaften Geschwülste (1863–67)
  • Ueber den Hungertyphus (1868)
  • Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am Schädel (1875)
  • Beiträge zur physischen Anthropologie der Deutschen (1876)
  • Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im Modernen Staat (1877)
  • Gesammelte Abhandlungen aus dem Gebiete der offentlichen Medizin und der Seuchenlehre (1879)
  • Gegen den Antisemitismus (1880)

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Further reading [edit]

  • Becher (1891). Rudolf Virchow, Berlin.
  • Pagel, J. L. (1906). Rudolf Virchow, Leipzig.
  • Ackerknecht, Erwin H. (1953) Rudolf Virchow: Doctor, Statesman, Anthropologist, Madison.
  • Virchow, RLK (1978). Cellular pathology. 1859 special ed., 204–207 John Churchill London, UK.
  • The Onetime Philippines thru Foreign Optics by Tomás de Comyn at Project Gutenberg, available at Projection Gutenberg (co-authored by Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
  • Virchow, Rudolf (1870). Menschen- und Affenschadeh Vortrag gehalten am eighteen. Febr. 1869 im Saale des Berliner Handwerkervereins. Berlin: Luderitz,
  • Eisenberg L. (1986). "Rudolf Virchow: the doctor as political leader". Medicine and War. 2 (4): 243–250. doi:10.1080/07488008608408712. PMID 3540555.
  • Rather, 50. J. (1990). A Commentary on the Medical Writings of Rudolf Virchow: Based on Schwalbe'southward Virchow-Bibliographie, 1843-1901. San Francisco: Norman Publishing. ISBN978-0-9304-0519-ix.

External links [edit]

  • Works by Rudolf Virchow at Project Gutenberg
  • Works past or about Rudolf Virchow at Internet Archive
  • Works past Rudolf Virchow at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
  • The Former Philippines thru Foreign Eyes, available at Project Gutenberg (co-authored past Virchow with Tomás Comyn, Fedor Jagor, and Chas Wilkes)
  • Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Plant for the History of Science
  • Students and Publications of Virchow
  • A biography of Virchow by the American Association of Neurological Surgeons that deals with his early work in Cerebrovascular Pathology
  • An English translation of the complete 1848 Written report on the Typhus Epidemic in Upper Silesia is bachelor in the February 2006 edition of the journal Social Medicine
  • Some places and memories related to Rudolf Virchow
  • Article on Rudolf Virchow in Nautilus retrieved on 28 January 2017.
  • Newspaper clippings almost Rudolf Virchow in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

Virchow Contribution To Cell Theory,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow

Posted by: hsuprots1996.blogspot.com

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